Early History
The Evolution of Evening Colleges in New South Wales:
Brian Peace, Mark Tennant and Pat Manser
Night Schools.
“The Board’s regulations regarding the establishment of night schools have been issued so recently I have not had much time to ascertain how the public will avail themselves of this means of education but I hope I shall be able to report some definite results for the current year.“
When Inspector M’Intyre wrote the above words in his annual report to the Board of National Education, he could hardly have envisaged what night school education would be like in 1988. Nor could he have imaged the train of events which occurred over the intervening years, which, through a series of reorganisations of the evening school systems of each period, would ultimately lead to the establishment of the present day Evening Colleges, which are now the largest systemic providers of adult education in the most populous state in Australia: New South Wales.
His words, however, do provide evidence that evening education for adults was available in government schools, albeit only on a semi-official basis, as far back as in 1864, thus providing an identifiable link between the Evening Colleges of today and the Night Schools of that period.
In recognition of the way in which these various Evening School systems have changed over the years, this chapter attempts to examine the relationship between Evening colleges in 1988 and the Night Schools of earlier times.
The chapter first traces some of the events which took place in those intervening years and describes the Evening Schools of each period. It concludes by describing the nature of Evening Colleges today, their organisational and administrative structures, and the strategies they have adopted to expand and maintain their programs.
The Early Evening Colleges (1864–1911)
The early night schools comprised classes set up in various government schools on a semi-formal basis to provide education for adults who had missed out on formal primary education (Smith and Spaull, 1925). Their availability depended largely on the interest and availability of teachers. There were few schools at that time, few teachers, and it was generally believed that many adults were illiterate. This situation existed until 1880 when government, under the leadership of Sir Henry Parkes, finally gave formal and legal recognition to Night Schools with the inclusion of Evening Public Schools in the Public Instruction Act of that year:
“If in any locality where a Public School has been established the parent or guardian or other residents apply by petition on behalf of not fewer than ten persons for the establishment of an Evening Public School, the Minister may, on being satisfied of all the circumstances, establish such school provided that such school shall be in the charge of a properly trained teacher”. (NSW Department of Education, 1923: Section 10).
By the end of 1880 there were 46 such schools with an enrolment of over 900 students (95 per cent were male). These schools appear to have been reasonably successful for a decade or so and the students dutifully paid the one shilling fee per week, which, in any event, was refundable at the end of the course, providing attendance was good (Smith and Spaull,1925). However, despite this initial success, there were only twelve schools operating by the end of 1894, seven of which were in the Sydney metropolitan region. Enrolments were also down to 326 students (NSW Department of Public Instruction 1894). It is possible that many factors contributed to this decline, although Smith and Spaull (1925:229–237) suggest that as more primary schools were built, the need for this kind of education for adults was correspondingly reduced. In 1869, for example, there was a total of 807 day schools (Public and Denominational) but by 1879 the number had increased to 1,268 (NSW Council of Education, 1879). Smith and Spaull also point out that Evening Public Schools had less appeal for adults because the development of technical education in the latter part of the 19th century was seen to provide greater employment opportunities. The situation was critical and there was clearly a need for change if evening education was to survive.
Among those who supported this view was Peter Board, the Director of Education at that time, who had recently returned from a study tour of the USA and Europe. This experience led him to believe that there was still an educational gap to be filled between formal school and work. He believed that, as employment opportunities were plentiful, and in an age of increasing technology, there was a corresponding need for a form of evening continuation school which would encourage children to continue their education (after leaving day school) until the age of 17 or 18 years. His recommendation, in 1910, called for the cooperation of employers requesting them to provide for and encourage boys to attend and suggested that classes should be linked to technical colleges to allow a natural flow on from one to the other. The only concession to girls was to recommend that provision for young women should be directed towards teaching them the “womanly arts“! (Smith and Spaull 1925:225).
Nevertheless, his recommendations breathed new life back into the Department’s Evening School provision. In fact, it is possible that his recommendations led to the first form of “bridging education“ in Australia, at least as we understand it today.
Evening Continuation Schools (1911–1946)
Following Peter Board’s recommendations, two types of Evening Schools were established: Evening Primary Schools and Evening Continuation Schools – the former were closed after only a short time as fewer adults had by then missed out on primary education. The Evening Continuation Schools, on the other hand, had been set up to provide continuity of education between the primary stage and employment, and became popular fairly quickly.
Three types of Evening Continuation Schools were established, these were:
- Artisan Schools for boys learning trades with classes in English, practical mathematics, drawing, manual work and elementary science. They were generally known as Junior Technical Schools.
- Commercial Schools for those working with business firms with classes in business practice (correspondence and elements of book-keeping), typewriting and shorthand.
- Domestic Science Schools for the training of girls in housekeeping and allied subjects, and English.
Each type of school conducted classes over a two year period at the end of which certificates were awarded to those who succeeded in passing a written examination. A fee of sixpence per week was charged, refundable at the end of the year to those students achieving a greater than 85 per cent attendance record (Board of Education, 1911:250).
In 1911 there were over 2,000 students in 19 schools. By 1913, there were 48 schools, 31 of them in Sydney Metropolitan area, which is a distribution quite the reverse to that for Evening Public Schools in earlier years when most were located in country areas. Significantly too, the age range of those attending Evening Continuation Schools had narrowed to between 14 and 16 years, which is quite a contrast with the earlier Evening Public Schools which served the 11–42 year age group. (NSW Department of Public Instruction, 1913).
However, by the mid-1930s the number of high schools in NSW had dramatically risen thus alleviating, in many cases, the need for Evening School attendance. Similarly, for those seeking classes in the more traditional adult education, the Workers’ Educational association and university tutorial classes were flourishing and still available. Technical education was also becoming increasingly accessible. In consequence, and despite the enticement of free tram passes and concession fares on trains, the popularity of Evening continuation Schools continued to decline. By the end of 1940 there were only 33 schools with a total enrolment of 2,940 students.
The decline continued during the period of Australia’s involvement in World War II. However, it was during the war that the popularity of the Army Education Service’s educational programs began to have an influence on the nature of adult education provision generally, chiefly with an increased availability of more “leisure“ oriented activities. During the same period, an Adult Education Sub-Committee was set up in 1942 to undertake a general review of adult education in NSW. The net effect of these developments was financial assistance to Parents and Citizens Groups to provide classes in Government schools in such subjects as general education, health, nutrition and handicraft activities (NSW Department of Public Instruction, 1943) and later still, in August 1945, the establishment of an Advisory Board of Adult Education (Wilson, 1963:5). It is interesting to note that some 29 years later this particular Board was to be replaced by the present NSW Board of Adult Education which ultimately became closely involved with Evening Colleges.
It was in this climate of change that steps were taken by the Department of Public Instruction to review the nature and scope of Evening School education. There was a need for a much broader range of educational activities tailored to the needs of adults as well as youth. This led to the establishment of Evening Youth Colleges in 1946. Classes were free and conducted in such subjects as: preparatory courses for public examination, English, mathematics, elementary science, history, geography, social studies, home science, handicrafts, metal work, woodwork, technical drawing, commercial subjects, hobbies and social activities.
By the end of 1947, 25 Colleges had been established but unfortunately, they were not immediately popular, with only 3,799 enrolments (NSW Department of Public Instruction 1947). And so, in an attempt to attract more people, particularly adults, Colleges were renamed in March 1948.
The term “Youth“ was dropped from the title with the name of each College being prefixed by the name of the locality which the College served. This was the beginning of the Evening College.
Evening Colleges (1948–1983)
During the late 1940s, the Department had managed to maintain a momentum for the development of this new type of evening education. The regulations regarding the establishment of Evening Colleges, which were contained in the amendments to the Public Instructions Act of 1880, still applied, and so a number of new colleges were established. By the end of 1949, there were 30 colleges with some located in such remote places as Broken Hill. Enrolments had risen to 8,000 but a peak of 47,000 wasn’t reached until 1969 (NSW Department of Education, 1968).
The range of education classes continued to increase through generally, individual college programs followed the same lines as those for the earlier Youth Colleges. In reality, the Department gave colleges the freedom to offer any subject, provided it was educational and there was a learning need in the community. According to Ebert, however, the purpose of the colleges at that time was “To provide further education, generally of a non-vocational character, for youth and adults“ (1967:139). Ebert‘s statement, unfortunately, would hardly be acceptable today and, in many ways, was misleading for those times when one considers that colleges offered classes in typing, shorthand, commerce and subjects for public examinations.
Classes continued to be free until 1956 when a small charge was made (Aus. $2 equivalent). In the following years, this fee was gradually increased and set by government as fees collected each term were returned to consolidated revenue. By 1974, the fee had risen to Aus. $14 (NSW Board of Adult Education, 1988). By this time, there were 53 colleges with an enrolment of $36,000.
Overall, colleges remained the responsibility of the Department of Education. However, at the local level, each Evening College was administered and managed by a principal working part-time, who was required to be a properly trained teacher (Education Act, 1961). This usually meant that day school teachers were appointed as principals to work in the evening on a part-time basis. In effect there was little opportunity for an outsider with qualifications and experience in adult education, or, say, business management to be appointed as principal.
Teachers, on the other hand, were hired by the principal, provided they had expertise in a particular subject, and were paid at a part-time rate. Classes continued to be held in the evening midweek and there were few variations from this. The year remained divided into three terms of 12 weeks each and roughly aligned with the day school terms.
On the whole, Evening Colleges proved to be a success story for the department during the post-war years. During the 1950s and 1960s, colleges flourished and were readily seen as centres of learning and leisure.
In the 1970s Evening Colleges continued to offer the traditional education fare, which comprised a range of matriculation subjects together with languages, literacy, typing, shorthand, woodwork, cooking, pottery, dressmaking, motor mechanics, floral art and cake decorating. But the traditional student groups were now departing from the system. One reason for this is that educational opportunities were expanded in other sectors. For example, Technical and Further Education Colleges were offering a variety of matriculation subjects which could be taken part-time in an adult environment. They were also providing literacy and numeracy classes and had an extensive range of general adult education courses. Also, higher education institutions were offering mature age and special admission, and exploring different ways of admitting non-matriculants.
Up to this point Evening Colleges had been used to bridge gaps and make up deficiencies in the formal education sector. The early Evening Schools had outlived their purpose once primary education was widely available. The Evening continuation Schools then bridged the gap between primary schooling and work, but they became obsolescent with the expansion of secondary education. In a similar manner Evening Colleges in the 1970s were offering courses which were available through other types of formal educational institutions. There was a need to change direction and offer a form of post-secondary education which was not available elsewhere in the system.
A difficulty, however, was that Evening Colleges were managed and administered through a department which was principally responsible for school level education. There was little incentive for departmental officers to encourage the development of Evening Colleges, partly because they were regarded as marginal and partly because they generated work in addition to their normal responsibilities. Similarly, there was little incentive for Evening College Principals to develop their programs, their primary work commitment was to the day school, and even with the best possible management, there were limits to the number of courses they could mount. In addition, the fees they collected were returned to central government funds and could not be deployed to further the interests of the college. Financial support was more or less guaranteed so long as the college was administered with a minimum level of competence.
Alternative educational provisions, declining economic prosperity, inert administrative and managerial structures, and a reduced student population collectively contributed to a sense of malaise in the Evening Colleges by the late 1970s. The changes needed to extended beyond the curriculum and there was a need for a fundamental restructuring of Evening Colleges. Fortunately there were a number of developments and influences which made this restructuring possible. Firstly, the NSW Board of Adult Education was establishment in the mid-1970s with a remit to foster developments in adult education in the state. It did not have a mandate to offer courses directly, but it could disburse funds to other agencies to assist them with their programs, and traditionally it had supported the Department of Education’s Evening Colleges. Secondly, education was increasingly becoming an instrument of government policy, and there emerged a host of government policies designed to promote, among disadvantaged groups, participation in, and access to, education, employment and community life. Finally, by the late 1970s there were many alternative community education activities in Australia and elsewhere which could serve as models for reform.
The NSW Board of Adult Education targeted Evening Colleges as being the principal vehicle through which adult education in the state could be expanded and professionalise. (One reason for this choice was that Evening Colleges enjoyed an element of legislative legitimacy which was not conferred upon other agencies.) It encouraged and sponsored a restructuring of Evening Colleges from the early 1980s onwards.
Evening Colleges (1983–1988)
Largely through the intervention of the NSW Board of Adult Education, Evening colleges now have a character and ethos which is quite different from earlier periods. The source of this transformation can be located in three fundamental initiatives:
The transfer of management responsibilities from the Department of Education to community based management committees (Councils).
- The retention of fees paid for courses.
- The establishment of full-time principal positions.
The idea behind establishing college councils is that they will ensure colleges respond to local community needs. The Principal is accountable to the Council and the Council is accountable to the local community and to funding bodies such as the Board of Adult Education.
The retention of fees has provided a measure of financial independence. The proportion of grant of fee income varies from college to college and depends on a number of factors such as the size of the operation, and the proportion of concessional enrolments. Colleges in wealthier areas are able to attract a large number of full fee-paying enrolments (the largest having an enrolment of 13,000 students over the year) while others have as many as 45 percent of concessional enrolments. The Board has a policy of distributing grants according to social need, so that some conventionally “successful“ colleges will have a lower proportion of their total turnover made up of government grants. To date, this does not seem to have been a disincentive. Special grants are given to fully subsidise literacy classes and classes for the disabled. In 1987–88, for example nearly one third of all grants were for this purpose.
The appointment of full-time principals has been possible through college amalgamations. Twenty-three of the 35 colleges now have full-time principals, and this process is likely to continue. The professional development of principals has been an important area of board activity. The emphasis to date has been on the entrepreneurial and management skills of principals, but as college operations are becoming firmly established there is a renewed concern that educational issues be canvassed and discussed. The establishment of the Evening Colleges Association is symptomatic of the emerging professionalism in Evening Colleges. The Association, which comprises member colleges, plays a significant role in the training of management committees and principals through conferences, seminars, newsletters and the general dissemination of information. It also acts as a “sounding board“ between the Board of Adult Education and the Colleges. Additionally, a Principals’ Association is operating to ensure that the conditions of employment and the salaries of principals and other staff are kept under review.
These changes are continuing to occur and their full impact is not yet apparent. However, they have already provided a boost for adult education in the state. Enrolments have risen to 119,000 and there is a greater range and variety of courses on offer. The larger colleges have enrolments rivalling those of regional universities and they are beginning to seek and attract funds from sources beyond the Board of Adult Education. There is evidence of increased flexibility in course formats (e.g. weekend workshops, day classes, seminars, short courses and field excursions) and colleges have initiated a range of courses for disadvantaged groups.
Courses are now available in areas such as Tai Chi (taught in Cantonese with English translation), computing, planning and managing a small business, refugee trauma rehabilitation, environmental excursions, personal development for itinerant populations, self-defence for women, Lebanese cooking and cooking for diabetics. Much of the traditional fare continues but it is often recast or has become specialised. Country colleges conduct courses in managing farm debt, tractor safety, chainsaw maintenance, legal responsibilities for people on the land, and so on. In addition Regional Evening Colleges have been established in country areas with a brief to provide isolated classes in addition to their normal centralised program. Also a specialised College for the Deaf and Hearing Impaired offers regular adult education with the support of signers.
The developments referred to above are a direct result of the restructuring of Evening colleges from 1983. The years following 1983 have been years of frenetic activity as newly appointed principals have sought to diversify and expand their colleges. The most urgent priority has been to secure the financial viability of the colleges and to set up sound administrative and managerial practices. Now that the restructuring is nearly complete there is likely to be a renewed focus on the raison d’etre of Evening Colleges. This is because there are wider changes occurring in post-secondary and secondary education in Australia which will have a significant impact on all educational agencies.
Future Directions
There is now a need for Evening Colleges to have a clear vision of their role and purpose in post-secondary education, and to articulate that vision. Many of the traditional distinctions between the various sectors of post-secondary education are being blurred by recent government initiatives (see Dawkins, 1988)
We are told that there will be a more flexible system of bridging courses, credit transfer, retraining schemes, industry based courses, courses targeted at specific groups, courses tailored for particular interest groups and so on. Evening Colleges are well positioned to enter more fully into areas of post-secondary education that have hitherto been the preserve of other institutions. In some instances they are re-entering areas previously lost to them. For example, literacy and programs for disabled people have traditionally been conducted in Evening Colleges. They have also provided typing and shorthand courses which are now beginning to diversity into other business-related courses. They are accustomed to operating in a responsive and flexible manner whereby the user has the capacity to influence the programs being offered. However, there remain a number of constraints which limit the capacities of Evening Colleges.
Perhaps the most severe constraint is the continuing perception of Evening Colleges (and adult education generally) as being a provider of non-vocational, leisure, recreation and hobby courses only. Associated with this is a conception of evening college teachers as being less professional than their counterparts in other sectors. Broadly speaking, these are inaccurate perceptions, but there is sufficient truth within them to warrant some reforms. Firstly there is a need to monitor the curriculum and offer only those courses which lead to significant educational gains, whether these gains be directed at personal development, equity and access or training/retraining. Secondly, there is a need to examine mechanisms for teacher selection and support with the aim of creating a professional cadre of teachers.
A second major constraint is that evening colleges continue to use school buildings and school resources, and it is the principal of the day school who is responsible for the buildings, grounds and equipment. This means that the interests of the day school take precedence over those of the “night” school. There is a need then for evening colleges to acquire property and this is already occurring in some country areas.
A final constraint is that evening colleges have traditionally been seen as serving local community needs. But within a geographical community are communities of interest which extend beyond geographical boundaries. Evening colleges are beginning to serve those communities of interest and as they do so they are adopting a broader profile.
The future of evening colleges is by no means assured. Their evolution has been linked closely to developments in primary, secondary, and finally post-secondary education. In the past they have been protected through their legislative status and their connection with the educational bureaucracy. This protection has now been removed for the reasons set out above. The protection they now enjoy is different in character – there are local parliamentary representatives on their committees, they have a separate status as legally incorporated entities, and there is considerable local participation. In summary they are now largely independent of bureaucratic control. The reorganisation of evening colleges has been a fillip for adult education, but whether this continues will depend upon the capacity of evening colleges to establish themselves as mature post-secondary education providers.
